Women are becoming more and more important in Indian politics. They have a big impact on policy, increase democratic involvement, and drive social change, even though there are still problems. Their importance comes from the fact that more and more of them are voting, running for office, being organizers, and becoming leaders at all levels, from local self-government to Parliament.
Role of Women in Indian Politics
Voters and Mobilizers: Women’s voter turnout has seen impressive growth, reaching over 65% in recent national elections. Political parties now actively target “women’s votes,” recognizing their importance in electoral outcomes.
Legislative Representation: Women constitute about 14% of Lok Sabha members and 9% in state assemblies. Although low by global standards, these numbers are increasing steadily.
Leaders and Ministers: Women have held top roles—Prime Minister (Indira Gandhi), Chief Ministers, and union and state cabinet ministers—demonstrating competence in governance, diplomacy, and policy.
Grassroots Leadership: In local self-government, reservation policies (one-third of seats in Panchayats and Urban Local Bodies, with many states having 50% reservations) have resulted in women comprising up to 44% of grassroots representatives, empowering millions across India.
Significance
Deepening Democracy: Women’s presence broadens the perspectives in decision-making, promotes inclusive policies—especially in health, education, and welfare—and strengthens democratic functioning.
Empowerment and Social Change: Women leaders challenge patriarchal norms, drive gender-sensitive reforms, and serve as role models, inspiring new generations to engage in politics and advocacy.
Enhanced Representation: Parliamentary debates and legislation increasingly address issues central to women—such as safety, health, education, and legal rights—because of women’s active representation.
International Commitments: India is a signatory to global conventions (CEDAW, Beijing Declaration) and continues to align domestic policy with global gender equality goals.
Key Developments
Women’s Reservation (106th Amendment, 2023): The Women’s Reservation Act reserves 33% of seats for women in Lok Sabha and State Assemblies, further advancing representation (to be implemented after the next census).
Capacity-building Initiatives: Training, leadership programs, and “pink booths” during elections foster participation and skill development.
Empowerment through SHGs: Over 10 crore women in Self Help Groups are transforming rural economies, gaining economic and political clout.
Challenges
Gender Discrimination & Violence: Social norms, patriarchal attitudes, violence, and resource limitations still hinder women’s full participation in politics.
Underrepresentation: Despite progress, women’s share in higher legislative bodies remains low; effective implementation of reservation policies is needed.
Data at a Glance
Level
Women’s Representation (2024)
Lok Sabha
13.6% (74 MPs)
State Assemblies
9% average
Local Self-Government
44% (Panchayats/ULBs)
Women are thus central to India’s political future—as voters, representatives, leaders, and agents of change—with their role and importance set to increase further with meaningful policy reforms and societal support.
Originally, there were 22 parts; today, there are 25 parts covering topics like the Union and its territory, citizenship, fundamental rights, directive principles, the Union and states, the judiciary, elections, and special provisions for certain regions or groups.
Articles are specific sections within these parts; the total has grown from 395 at inception to 448 today.
Schedules
The schedules are appendices that contain additional details, lists, and guidelines to supplement constitutional provisions.
The original 8 Schedules have expanded to 12, dealing with issues such as the allocation of powers, lists of states and territories, administration of tribal areas, and official languages.
Federal Structure with Unitary Features
India is a federal union with a strong center but with unitary features such as a single constitution, single citizenship, a unified judiciary, and emergency powers.
Powers are divided among the Union, states, and (after amendments) local governments.
Basic Structure Doctrine
Landmark Supreme Court judgments have established that certain core features (the “basic structure”) of the Constitution cannot be amended by Parliament. These include supremacy of the Constitution, democracy, secularism, separation of powers, fundamental rights, rule of law, and more.
Summary Table: Structure of Indian Constitution
Component
Details
Preamble
States aspirational values (justice, liberty, equality, fraternity)
Parts
25 thematic divisions (originally 22)
Articles
448 numbered provisions (originally 395)
Schedules
12 lists/appendices (originally 8)
Federalism
Federal in structure, unitary in spirit
Basic Structure
Key unamendable features per Supreme Court
This detailed framework allows India to accommodate its diversity, balance central authority with local autonomy, and protect foundational democratic values.
B. THE PREAMBLE OF THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION
The Preamble of the Indian Constitution is a brief introductory statement that sets out the guiding values, principles, and objectives of the Constitution. It serves as the “identity card” of the document, summarizing its essence and reflecting the aspirations of the people of India.
Full Text of the Preamble
Decorative page from the original Constitution of India displaying the Preamble, adopted November 26, 1949
WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST SECULAR DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC and to secure to all its citizens:
JUSTICE, social, economic and political;
LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship;
EQUALITY of status and of opportunity; and to promote among them all
FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the Nation;
IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY this twenty-sixth day of November, 1949, we HEREBY ADOPT, ENACT, AND GIVE TO OURSELVES THIS CONSTITUTION.
Highlights of the Preamble
Source of authority: The Constitution derives its power from “the people of India.”
Nature of State: Declares India as a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic.
Objectives: Secures justice, liberty, equality, and fraternity for all citizens.
Date of adoption: Adopted by the Constituent Assembly on November 26, 1949.
The Preamble encapsulates the philosophy and vision of the Indian Constitution, guiding its interpretation and implementation.
C. MAIN BODY OF THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION
The main body of the Indian Constitution is detailed, comprehensive, and organized into a system of parts, articles, and schedules. It establishes the structure, powers, and functions of the principal organs of government and lays down the rights and duties of citizens.
Key Features of the Main Body
1. Parts and Articles
The Constitution is divided into 25 parts (originally 22), each covering a major aspect of governance, rights, and administration.
These parts contain a total of 448 articles (originally 395), numbered sequentially, which provide detailed legal provisions.
Notable parts include:
Part I: Union and its Territory
Part II: Citizenship
Part III: Fundamental Rights
Part IV: Directive Principles of State Policy
Part V/VI: Structure and functioning of Union and State governments
Part IX/IXA: Local self-government (Panchayats, Municipalities)
Part XVIII: Emergency Provisions
2. Schedules
12 schedules (originally 8), appended at the end, provide lists, classifications, and additional details to support the main text.
Topics include allocation of powers, lists of states/territories, forms of oaths, and division of legislative subjects.
3. Institutional Structure
The Constitution establishes three primary organs:
Legislature (Parliament: Rajya Sabha and Lok Sabha)
Executive (President, Prime Minister, Council of Ministers, Governors)
Judiciary (Supreme Court, High Courts, Subordinate Courts)
Outlines a parliamentary system, with India being a federal country having strong central (unitary) features.
4. Quasi-Federal System
India’s Constitution grants powers to both the Union and State governments but has significant unitary provisions (single citizenship, integrated judiciary, emergency powers).
5. Basic Structure Doctrine
Certain features—such as the supremacy of the Constitution, secularism, republicanism, federalism, and separation of powers—form an unamendable “basic structure” as recognized by the judiciary.
Parliament, President, Council of Ministers, Judiciary, States
The main body thus provides the backbone of governance, law, and administration in India, ensuring both flexibility and stability.
D. SCHEDULE THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION
Schedules of the Indian Constitution
There are 12 Schedules in the Indian Constitution, each dealing with a specific subject. These schedules serve to clearly organize laws, administrative details, and official policy areas, making implementation efficient and reference straightforward.
Schedule
Subject Matter
First
List of States, Union Territories, and their territories
Second
Emoluments, allowances, and privileges of key officials: President, Governors, Judges, etc.
Third
Forms of oaths and affirmations for union and state ministers, legislators, judges
Fourth
Allocation of seats for States/UTs in Rajya Sabha (Council of States)
Fifth
Provisions regarding administration of Scheduled Areas/Scheduled Tribes
Sixth
Provisions for tribal areas in Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Mizoram
Seventh
Division of powers: Union, State, Concurrent legislative lists
Eighth
List of 22 official languages
Ninth
Acts and regulations protected from judicial review (mainly land reforms)
Tenth
Disqualification on grounds of defection (Anti-defection Law)
Eleventh
Powers, authority, and responsibilities of Panchayats (73rd Amendment)
Twelfth
Powers, authority, and responsibilities of Municipalities (74th Amendment)
These schedules help in efficient governance and reduce the complexity of the main constitutional text.
E. BASIC FEATURES OF THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION
The Basic Features of the Indian Constitution, also known as the Basic Structure Doctrine, are fundamental principles that form the core of the Constitution and cannot be altered or destroyed by any constitutional amendment by Parliament. This doctrine was established by the Supreme Court in the landmark Kesavananda Bharati case (1973) to ensure the stability and integrity of the Constitution.
Key Basic Features
Supremacy of the Constitution: The Constitution is the supreme law of the land; all laws and amendments must conform to it.
Democratic Principles: India is a sovereign, democratic, and republican state with free and fair elections reflecting the people’s will.
Fundamental Rights: These rights are inviolable and cannot be diluted by amendments.
Separation of Powers: Distinct division and independence of the Legislature, Executive, and Judiciary to ensure checks and balances.
Judicial Review: The judiciary has the authority to review and strike down unconstitutional laws or amendments.
Federalism: Distribution of powers between the Union and States, maintaining the federal structure.
Secularism: Equal treatment of all religions by the state, with no state religion.
Unity and Integrity: Preservation of national unity and territorial integrity.
Rule of Law: All citizens and authorities are subject to the law, ensuring justice and equality.
Parliamentary System: Governance follows a federal parliamentary democracy.
Welfare State: Commitment to social and economic justice for all citizens.
Free and Fair Elections: Ensuring democratic representation without manipulation or coercion.
Limited Power of Parliament: Parliament cannot amend or abrogate the basic structure or core principles of the Constitution.
Significance
This doctrine protects India’s constitutional vision by preventing arbitrary or authoritarian changes while allowing flexibility for legitimate amendments. It ensures the Constitution’s foundational values remain intact, promoting democracy, individual rights, and governance with accountability.
This doctrine remains a critical safeguard in India’s constitutional jurisprudence, balancing change with continuity.
A survey or investigation that measures the people’s opinions on a certain issue or range of topics is known as a scientific, nonpartisan public opinion poll. Trained interviewers randomly select interview subjects from the population under study. Interviewers offer responses and produce interpretations based on the outcomes. Every member of the population being investigated should have an equal chance of participating in a random sample. Otherwise, the outcomes can be skewed and not accurately reflect the population. In order to draw generalizations about a given community under study, representative samples are chosen.
2. Why are opinion polls significant?
Polls show us what percentage of a population holds a particular opinion. They don’t offer any justification for respondents’ beliefs or suggestions for how to influence them. Scholars and social scientists worked on this. Simply said, polls are a measurement technique that reveals what a population believes and feels about a particular issue.
Because it allows the people an opportunity to speak for themselves rather than allowing only outspoken media stars to speak on behalf of all, this project can be helpful in promoting understanding between different cultures. Opinion polling provides a voice to those who often lack access to the media.
3. Opinion polling for the 2019 Indian general election
Despite their repeated inaccuracies, exit polls have gained popularity in India over the past two decades. They have grown to be an essential component of the media’s coverage of elections and are regarded as a key instrument for forecasting election results. India restricts the use of exit polls to prevent the spread of inaccurate or misleading information that could influence the election’s outcome.
An exit poll, as you may probably conclude from the name, is a survey of voters conducted immediately after they leave the polling place. What purpose does an exit poll serve if the actual results will be available in just a few hours?
You’ve probably seen them proclaim the predicted winner if you’ve ever watched a tight election on television. This data was probably derived in part from an exit poll. Although we could consider the information provided by exit polls to be factual, it is actually just a preliminary analysis of surveys conducted among voters as they left the polls.
1. Meaning
Exit polls are conducted during elections, providing a snapshot of how voters have cast their ballots. As voters exit polling booths, they are approached by surveyors who ask them about their voting choices. Exit polls are valuable for journalists as they help predict election outcomes before official results are announced. Journalists can use exit poll data to analyze voting patterns, assess voter behavior, and offer early warnings regarding the public’s preferences.
2. The Purpose of Exit Polls
Exit polls ask respondents how they voted soon after casting their ballots, giving a “snapshot of the electorate” and measuring public opinion. Exit polls differ from opinion surveys in that they track real-time responses from voters after the election rather than forecasting votes or opinions.
Exit polls are advantageous because they give the general public a head start on learning who the winner is and how various demographics voted. Exit polls can influence future political campaigns, policies, and laws much like other public opinion measurements.
3. Exit polls: Obstacles
Exit polling has various difficulties. We must emphasize that exit polls don’t always accurately predict an election’s winner. Early projections are frequently wrong since the data fluctuates throughout Election Day. The accuracy of exit poll data rises as the day goes on and more data is collected. We cannot know if an exit poll correctly predicted the winners until after the election. Exit polls’ value as a forecasting tool is further hampered by mail-in ballots and other issues.
C. Surveys
Introduction
Surveys are an effective tool for gathering public opinion on a wide range of topics. Journalists often conduct surveys to obtain insights into public perceptions, attitudes, and preferences. Surveys can be administered through various channels, including face-to-face interviews, telephone interviews, or online questionnaires. Journalists carefully design survey questions to ensure unbiased and accurate responses, enabling them to report on the prevailing opinions of the public.
1. Survey and election polling
Election polling is the act of using surveys or polls during an election year to concentrate on subjects that are important to voters, examine voter turnout, learn what voters believe about the candidates, and determine who they will support on Election Day.
Election polls are done with targeted questions to identify public opinion about the government and opposition parties, the performance of the elected candidate, or to predict the outcomes of the just-ended elections, even while elections are not at the forefront. In fact, many political candidates use polls to learn about the most important issues in their constituency, the shortcomings of their campaigns, and the attitudes of voters.
2. Using an election survey.
Although there is a significant distinction between a poll and a survey, political parties and candidates employ both during an election cycle for various purposes. However, polling places in America have remained largely unchanged for years, despite advancements in technology. The switch from telephone interviews to online polls is the only discernible difference.
Political parties and candidates for office produce polls for various purposes. Election polls can be conducted to determine the most important topics in a particular constituency, to measure public opinion about various candidates, to forecast election results, to spot weaknesses in the current campaign, and even to plan the election campaign.
Polls also help to understand the candidates and their plans for the jobs they hope to take on if elected. Voters should consider this information since it will be useful in understanding the candidate, their background, and their future goals. Voters can better understand their preferences by using this data when casting ballots.
D. Social media
The emergence of social media platforms has transformed the assessment of public opinion in India. Platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram provide a space for individuals to express their thoughts, concerns, and viewpoints publicly. Journalists monitor social media conversations, analyze trending hashtags (#), and engage with users to gain a pulse on public sentiment. Social media platforms also facilitate real-time discussions, allowing journalists to gather instant feedback on various topics.
Gauging public opinion in India is vital for journalists to maintain journalistic integrity and provide balanced reporting. Journalists must exercise caution while interpreting opinion poll data, as sample sizes and methodology can impact the accuracy of results. Additionally, it is crucial to consider the diversity and heterogeneity of India’s population, as opinions may vary across different regions, cultures, and demographics. Journalists must strive to present a comprehensive representation of public opinion, taking into account the nuances and complexities of India’s diverse society.
Gauging public opinion in India is an essential aspect of journalism. Opinion polls, exit polls, surveys, and the influence of social media are all valuable tools that journalists employ to understand and reflect the voice of the public. By leveraging these methods, journalists can provide insightful and objective coverage, giving readers a more profound understanding of the prevailing sentiments and viewpoints within Indian society. Understanding public opinion empowers journalists to fulfill their responsibility of informing the public and facilitating informed discussions on critical issues.
B. MEDIA THEORIES
Introduction
In today’s fast-paced digital age, media has become an omnipresent force shaping our lives and influencing our thoughts. From traditional newspapers to social media platforms, from television networks to podcast streams, the media plays a pivotal role in disseminating information, shaping public opinion, and driving societal change. As aspiring journalists, it is crucial for us to comprehend the complex relationship between ideas and perspectives that underpin media production, distribution, and consumption. That is where media theories step in, providing us with invaluable frameworks to deal with the complexity of this ever-evolving landscape.
Media theories are intellectual frameworks that examine the complex relationship between media and society, shedding light on how messages are constructed, interpreted, and experienced. By examining the fundamental principles and dynamics that govern media systems, these theories help us navigate the dynamic realm of journalism with a more profound understanding of its impact on society.
From the perspective of journalism, media theories serve as a compass, guiding us through the turbulent seas of information dissemination. Journalists bear the immense responsibility of delivering news with accuracy, fairness, and integrity. Media theories provide us with a critical lens to scrutinize the processes involved in the production, packaging, and consumption of news.
One of these ideas is the agenda-setting theory, which says that the media can change how important certain topics are to the public. By determining what stories to cover and how to present them, journalists can shape the public agenda, influencing what issues are discussed and debated. Understanding this theory allows journalists to recognize their pivotal role in shaping public discourse and empowers them to wield their influence responsibly.
As journalism students, we embark on a journey to explore various media theories, each offering unique insights into the intricacies of communication, media influence, and the societal implications that ensue. By reviewing these theories, we sharpen our critical thinking skills, enabling us to dissect media narratives, recognize biases, and engage with media content in a discerning manner.
In this textbook, we will embark on an enlightening exploration of several prominent media theories, unraveling their significance in the context of journalism and media studies. We will examine theories such as the cultivation theory, social construction of reality, uses and gratifications theory, and many more, equipping ourselves with the tools to analyze media in all its forms.
As we explore the depths of media theories, let us embrace the intellectual journey that lies ahead. Together, we will decipher the complex interconnections between media and society, unlocking the mechanisms that shape our understanding of the world. By embracing these theories, we not only become more adept journalists but also empowered citizens capable of critically engaging with the media landscape that surrounds us.
So, fasten your seatbelts and embark on this enlightening expedition into the realm of media theories. Prepare to challenge your assumptions, broaden your perspectives, and uncover the hidden mechanisms that shape the media landscape. Welcome to the captivating world of media theories—a voyage that will forever change the way you perceive the media and its profound influence on society.
Government data indicates India’s GDP is US$4.18 trillion, with forecasts suggesting it may exceed Germany’s by 2026, notwithstanding global trade obstacles.
India has surpassed Japan to emerge as the fourth-largest economy globally, with a GDP estimated at $4.18 trillion. The increase signifies a decade marked by swift growth, robust domestic demand, and significant reforms, despite ongoing challenges such as low per capita income, pressures for job creation, and uncertainties in global trade that continue to influence India’s economic path.
India is poised to surpass Germany, emerging as the third-largest economy by 2030, supported by robust growth figures.
“India, with a GDP of $4.18 trillion, has eclipsed Japan to emerge as the fourth-largest economy globally and is on track to overtake Germany within the next 2.5 to 3 years, with a projected GDP of $7.3 trillion by 2030,” as stated in the release.
The United States and China represent the foremost economies globally, as determined by their respective gross domestic product (GDP) figures.
New Delhi’s optimistic evaluation persists in the face of economic concerns following Washington’s imposition of substantial tariffs on its acquisitions of Russian oil in August.
India articulated that its sustained growth is indicative of its fortitude in the face of ongoing global trade uncertainties.
What are the driving forces behind India’s growth narrative?
The central government, in its recent announcement, highlighted India’s growth trajectory, noting that the GDP has reached a six-quarter peak during the July-September period of the financial year concluding in 2025-26.
The nation’s development arises from its steadfastness in the face of ongoing global trade ambiguities. The domestic drivers within India, propelled by private consumption, have been pivotal in bolstering the nation’s GDP growth.
The government has also pointed out that inflation staying beneath the lower threshold, a decrease in unemployment, and enhanced export performance are among the key indicators that bolster India’s growth trajectory.
“The financial landscape has remained favorable, characterized by robust credit inflows to the commercial sector, while demand conditions persist with vigor, bolstered by an additional enhancement of urban consumption,” the government stated. The International Monetary Fund’s forecasts for 2026 estimate India’s economy to reach US$4.51 trillion, surpassing Japan’s projected US$4.46 trillion.
The United States holds the position of the world’s largest economy, while China ranks as the second largest.
The upward trajectory of growth has exceeded expectations, with GDP reaching a six-quarter peak in the second quarter of 2025-26, illustrating India’s robustness in the face of ongoing global trade uncertainties, it noted. The expansion was fundamentally supported by domestic drivers, prominently characterized by strong private consumption.
The announcement indicated that global organizations have reflected this optimism and referenced forecasts provided by multiple sources. The World Bank anticipates a growth rate of 6.5% for the year 2026, while Moody’s forecasts that India will continue to be the fastest-growing economy within the G20, projecting growth rates of 6.4% in 2026 and 6.5% in 2027. The International Monetary Fund has elevated its projections to 6.6% for 2025 and 6.2% for 2026, while the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development anticipates a growth rate of 6.7% in 2025 and 6.2% in 2026. Furthermore, the S&P forecasts a growth of 6.5% for the current fiscal year and 6.7% for the subsequent year. The Asian Development Bank has revised its 2025 estimate upward to 7.2%, while Fitch has increased its FY26 projection to 7.4%, attributing this adjustment to heightened consumer demand.
“India stands as one of the most rapidly advancing major economies globally and is strategically poised to maintain this trajectory.” The government stated, “With the aspiration of achieving high middle-income status by 2047, the centenary of its independence, the nation is constructing upon robust foundations of economic growth, structural reforms, and social advancement.”
The announcement underscored that inflation persists beneath the lower tolerance threshold, unemployment is on a downward trajectory, and export performance is steadily enhancing. Moreover, the financial landscape has remained favorable, characterized by robust credit inflows to the commercial sector, while demand conditions persist with resilience, bolstered by an additional enhancement in urban consumption.
The upward trajectory of growth has exceeded expectations, with GDP reaching a six-quarter peak in the second quarter of 2025-26, illustrating India’s robustness in the face of ongoing global trade uncertainties, as noted.
The expansion was fundamentally supported by domestic drivers, prominently featuring strong private consumption.
The announcement additionally indicated that global organizations have resonated with this optimism, referencing forecasts articulated by diverse bodies.
The World Bank anticipates a growth rate of 6.5% for the year 2026, while Moody’s forecasts that India will continue to be the fastest-growing economy within the G20, with projected growth rates of 6.4% in 2026 and 6.5% in 2027.
The International Monetary Fund has adjusted its growth projections to 6.6% for the year 2025 and 6.2% for 2026, while the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development anticipates a growth rate of 6.7% in 2025 and 6.2% in 2026.
Furthermore, S&P projects a growth rate of 6.5% for the current fiscal year and 6.7% for the subsequent year; the Asian Development Bank has revised its 2025 forecast upward to 7.2%; and Fitch has elevated its FY26 projection to 7.4% in light of heightened consumer demand.
The recent merger has instilled a sense of discomfort among certain leaders of the NCP (SP), as they are reluctant to operate once more under the stewardship of Ajit Pawar, who has forged an alliance with the BJP.
In late December 2025, Ajit Pawar announced an alliance between his NCP faction and Sharad Pawar’s NCP (SP) for the Pimpri-Chinchwad and Pune municipal corporation polls scheduled for January 15, 2026, framing it as a “Pawar parivar” reunion to consolidate votes against BJP dominance. While both factions stressed the tie-up is limited to these local elections with separate symbols and seat-sharing (e.g., NCP contesting 125 seats in Pune, NCP-SP 40), speculation surged about a full merger post-polls, potentially positioning Ajit to lead Maharashtra politics and Supriya Sule for central roles after Sharad Pawar’s retirement. No full merger occurred by year-end, but the move stemmed from worker pressure, shared turf threats from BJP, and avoiding vote splits.
Background: The 2023 NCP Split
In July 2023, the NCP split when Ajit Pawar, along with several leaders, broke away to join the BJP–Shiv Sena alliance, taking oath as Deputy Chief Minister of Maharashtra. The Election Commission later recognized Ajit Pawar’s faction as the official NCP with the “clock” symbol, while Sharad Pawar’s camp became known as NCP (SP) with the “tutari” (trumpet) symbol. This set the stage for two competing entities contesting future elections separately.
Recent Developments: Reunification in Civic Polls
Pimpri-Chinchwad Municipal Corporation (PCMC)
Alliance Announced: On December 29, 2025, Ajit Pawar publicly announced that both factions will contest the upcoming PCMC elections together, stating that “the parivar (family) has come together”.
Symbol Reconciliation: This move symbolizes a reunification of sorts, merging the “clock” and “tutari” symbols for the civic polls.
Strategic Intent: The announcement is framed as a decision in Maharashtra’s interest, aiming for a consolidated front in local governance.
Pune Municipal Corporation (PMC)
Alliance Also in Pune: Following the PCMC alliance, the two factions extended cooperation to Pune civic elections. NCP (SP) will contest 40 seats, while Ajit Pawar’s NCP will field candidates in 125 wards.
Symbol Retention: Each faction will use its own party symbol—clock for Ajit Pawar’s NCP and tutari for Sharad Pawar’s NCP (SP).
Alliance Scope: This cooperation is explicitly limited to PCMC and PMC only; broader reunification remains unconfirmed.
Political Motive: Rohit Pawar emphasized that the alliance reflects the will of local party workers and aims to counter the BJP’s influence.
Election Context
Pimpri-Chinchwad and Pune represent NCP strongholds, where the 2023 split weakened both factions against BJP-Shiv Sena alliances. Ajit Pawar’s group holds more ground but faces anti-incumbency; Sharad’s relies on loyalists amid MVA rifts. Polls test if reunion boosts combined vote share in these urban civic bodies amid Maharashtra’s 29 municipal elections.
PCMC Polls Strategy
In Pimpri-Chinchwad Municipal Corporation (PCMC), the alliance counters BJP’s expansion after NCP’s 2023 vertical split eroded its base. Ajit Pawar declared the “clock” (NCP) and “tutari” (NCP-SP) symbols uniting, with seat talks finalized to prevent three-way fights benefiting rivals. Analysts view this as a low-risk trial: success rebuilds NCP brand pre-2026 broader polls; failure limits damage to local races. Outcomes could foreshadow statewide realignment, echoing past INC-NCP dominance in councils per historical analyses. Some NCP-SP leaders resigned over Ajit-BJP ties, highlighting internal tensions.
Pune: Talks Collapse for PMC
Negotiations Fail: Prior to the eventual alliance, talks between factions for a Pune-only alliance collapsed on December 27, 2025. Sharad Pawar’s faction rejoined the Maha Vikas Aghadi (MVA) due to disagreements over the seat-sharing ratio and symbol usage.
Core Issue: Ajit Pawar insisted that all candidates from Sharad Pawar’s faction contest under the “clock” symbol and rejected their demand for 68 seats—an offer deemed unacceptable as it would dissolve Sharad Pawar’s faction in Pune.
Rural consumer behavior refers to the buying patterns, preferences, and attitudes of people living in rural areas. It is influenced by unique characteristics of rural society, which differ significantly from urban markets.
2. Demographic Perspective
Features:
Population: Over 65% of India’s population lives in rural areas.
Age: Rural populations often have a higher proportion of young people and children.
Income: Generally lower and more seasonal (dependent on agriculture).
Education: Lower literacy rates than urban India, though improving.
Occupation: Dominated by agriculture, allied activities, and small businesses.
Example:
A rural family may delay purchasing a tractor until after the harvest season, when their income is highest.
3. Sociological Perspective
Features:
Community Orientation: Decisions are often influenced by family, neighbors, and village elders.
Role of Opinion Leaders: Sarpanch (village head), teachers, and successful farmers can shape opinions.
Joint Family System: Purchase decisions may be made collectively, not individually.
Gender Roles: Men often make major buying decisions, but women influence purchases related to food, clothing, and household needs.
Example:
A woman may influence the family’s choice of detergent or food brand, while men decide on agricultural equipment.
4. Cultural Perspective
Features:
Tradition & Customs: Festivals, rituals, and traditions strongly impact consumption (e.g., buying gold during Diwali).
Religion: Dietary choices, clothing, and celebrations are influenced by religious beliefs.
Language: Local languages and dialects significantly contribute to marketing communication.
Brand Loyalty: Once rural consumers establish trust in a brand, they tend to remain loyal.
Example:
During harvest festivals like Pongal or Baisakhi, sales of consumer durables (TVs, motorcycles) spike.
5. Lifestyle Perspective
Features:
Simple Living: Preferences for practical, durable, and value-for-money products.
Media Consumption: Rapidly increasing access to TV, mobile phones, and digital platforms, but word-of-mouth remains vital.
Limited Access: Fewer retail outlets; weekly markets (haats) are common shopping hubs.
Aspirations: Growing aspirations due to exposure to media and urban migration, yet strong ties to traditional values.
Example:
Haats are central to rural shopping; a local FMCG brand may distribute sample sachets at the weekly haat to boost awareness.
6. Case Studies
Case Study 1: HUL’s Project Shakti
Background: Hindustan Unilever Limited (HUL) trained rural women to become direct-to-home sales agents for FMCG products.
Demographic: Targeted women in villages with limited income opportunities.
Sociological: Leveraged community trust and women’s social networks.
Cultural: Women agents understood local customs and language.
Outcome: Increased brand reach and empowered rural women.
Here is an illustrative image representing HUL’s Project Shakti: It shows a group of rural Indian women dressed in traditional attire, smiling and standing together in a village setting. They are holding baskets and promotional materials featuring household products, symbolizing their role as Shakti entrepreneurs who distribute HUL products in rural areas. This image captures the essence of women’s empowerment and rural entrepreneurship that Project Shakti promotes.
Case Study 2: Mahindra’s Tractor Sales
Background: Mahindra & Mahindra, a leading tractor manufacturer, customized its sales approach for rural markets.
Demographic: Focused on small and marginal farmers.
Sociological: Organized demonstration camps and involved local opinion leaders.
Cultural: Scheduled promotions around harvest festivals.
Lifestyle: Offered finance schemes to align with seasonal cash flows.
Here is a visual case study representation: Imagine a vibrant rural Indian landscape where farmers are actively using a red Mahindra tractor in lush green fields. The scene includes farmers in traditional attire working together and discussing it near the tractor, with rural homes in the background. This image highlights Mahindra’s strong presence and success in rural tractor sales, making it ideal for educational or marketing case studies focused on rural India.
Case Study 3: Coca-Cola’s Rural Strategy
Background: Coca-Cola introduced smaller, affordable bottles and deepened its distribution in villages.
Demographic: Targeted lower-income groups with affordable pricing.
Sociological: Used local influencers and village retailers.
Cultural: Advertised using regional languages and festival themes.
Lifestyle: Sold products through local kirana stores and haats.
Sample Visual: Rural Lifestyle
Here is an illustration depicting Coca-Cola’s rural strategy: it shows a rural Indian village scene where a small local shop features Coca-Cola branding and refrigerators stocked with Coke bottles. Villagers, including women and children in traditional attire, are gathered around, some enjoying bottles of Coca-Cola. The background includes mud houses, a dusty road, and green fields, effectively representing how Coca-Cola has reached and integrated into rural markets.
Case 4: ITC e-Choupal
Description: ITC set up internet kiosks in villages to provide farmers with information on weather, prices, and best practices, changing how rural consumers access information and make decisions.
Here is an illustrative image representing the ITC e-Choupal case study: It shows a rural Indian farmer using a computer terminal inside a simple village setup, with an ITC e-Choupal signboard in the background. The screen displays agricultural information that other farmers gather around to discuss. The setting includes traditional elements like fields, agricultural tools, and villagers in typical rural attire, highlighting how technology is empowering farmers through ITC’s initiative.
Key Features of the e-Choupal Strategy
Aspect Details
Technology: Internet kiosks in villages, often managed by a trained local farmer (Sanchalak).
Information: Daily updates on market prices, weather forecasts, best farming practices, and news.
Disintermediation: Reduces the role of middlemen, allowing farmers to sell directly to ITC at better prices.
Community Focus: Centers serve as gathering points for education, healthcare awareness, and agricultural advice.
Empowerment: Sanchalaks (local coordinators) are trained and earn commission, driving local employment.
Implementation Steps
Identify Villages: Target areas with significant agricultural potential.
Set Up Kiosks: Equipped with computers, internet, and power backup.
Select & Train Sanchalaks: Educate local leaders to manage kiosks.
Build Trust: ITC focuses on transparency and farmer welfare.
Continuous Support: Regular training, technical support, and updates.
Conclusion
Understanding rural consumer behavior requires a nuanced approach considering the demographic, sociological, and cultural differences. Brands that recognize these unique characteristics and adapt their strategies accordingly—like Unilever, ITC, and Coca-Cola—have seen success in rural India.
Urban migration and schemes like MGNREGA boost disposable incomes, enabling premium buys during festivals. Aspirational shifts lead to two-wheelers over cycles in Punjab villages.
Example 1: HUL’s Lifebuoy campaigns modernized hygiene norms in Uttar Pradesh, increasing soap usage 3x through community demos aligned with evolving lifestyles.
Here is a visual representation of HUL’s Lifebuoy campaign modernizing hygiene norms in Uttar Pradesh: the image features rural children and mothers in traditional attire washing their hands with Lifebuoy soap at a community handwashing station. A colorful Lifebuoy campaign banner and educational posters about handwashing are visible, set against a backdrop of typical rural North Indian houses and trees. This scene highlights health awareness and community participation, reflecting how Lifebuoy has helped promote improved hygiene practices in the region.
How it affects rural consumer behavior:
Exposure to new products and brands: Rural consumers are increasingly exposed to urban lifestyles, global brands, and new products through television, the internet, and migrants returning from cities.
Changing aspirations: Modernization leads to changes in preferences, with rural consumers aspiring for better quality, branded goods, and modern amenities.
Shift in consumption patterns: Traditional preferences may give way to global trends, changing food habits, fashion, and entertainment choices.
Example 2: A rural family that previously wore only traditional clothing now desires branded T-shirts and jeans after seeing advertisements and relatives wearing them.
Case Study: Hindustan Unilever’s Project Shakti
Background: HUL launched Project Shakti to empower rural women as direct-to-consumer sales agents for its products.
Impact: Products like Lifebuoy soap, Fair & Lovely, and Wheel detergent reached remote villages. Through micro-entrepreneurship, rural consumers were exposed to modern hygiene and beauty products, altering their buying patterns and preferences.
Result: The project not only increased product accessibility but also modernized consumption habits in rural India.
2. Technological Factors
Smartphones (72% rural penetration) and UPI enable COD e-commerce, with 36% digital payments from villages. Jio’s affordable data spurred online research, doubling rural online buys from 4% to 8% (2015-2016).
Example 1: BCG’s rural surveys across 14 states showed connected consumers like “Vikas” upgrading data packs, influencing 80% of purchases via apps in Maharashtra.
Here is a visual representation based on BCG’s rural surveys in Maharashtra: The image shows a young rural man, representing “Vikas,” using his smartphone in a village setting to upgrade his data pack through a mobile app. On his phone screen, icons of popular shopping apps are visible. In the background, other villagers are watching and discussing, illustrating how his actions influence their purchase decisions. The scene includes typical elements of a rural Maharashtra village, such as traditional houses, motorcycles, and lush greenery, highlighting digital adoption and peer influence among rural consumers.
How it affects rural consumer behavior:
Access to information: Mobile phones and the internet allow rural consumers to compare prices, learn about products, and access services previously unavailable.
Online transactions: Growth of digital payments and e-commerce introduces villagers to new ways of shopping.
Awareness and education: Technology spreads awareness about modern agricultural practices, healthcare, and financial products.
Example 2: A farmer uses a mobile app to check weather forecasts and compare crop prices in different markets before deciding when and where to sell his produce.
Case Study: ITC e-Choupal
Background: ITC set up e-Choupal digital kiosks in villages, giving farmers access to real-time information on crop prices, weather, and best farming practices.
Impact: Farmers became more informed, reduced their dependence on middlemen, and improved their income by selling their produce at better rates.
Result: This technological intervention transformed decision-making and purchasing behavior among rural farmers, making them more empowered and market-driven.
In summary:
Globalization/modernization brings new aspirations and products to rural consumers, changing what they buy and how they buy it (e.g., Project Shakti).
Technology empowers rural consumers with information and accessibility, enabling smarter choices and new consumption habits (e.g., ITC e-Choupal).
Channels of Distribution in Rural India Channels of distribution refer to the pathways through which goods and services flow from producers to consumers. Distribution channels in rural India cater to specific challenges like dispersed populations, inadequate infrastructure, and low literacy rates. Companies have developed innovative models to penetrate rural markets.
A. ITC (e-Choupal)
Description:
ITC e-Choupal is a digital platform that connects rural farmers directly with ITC, bypassing traditional middlemen. It provides real-time information on weather, prices, best farming practices, and market demand via internet kiosks installed in villages. Local farmers, trained as ‘Sanchalaks,’ operate these kiosks. Benefits:
Reduces information asymmetry. Farmers get better prices for their produce. ITC saves on procurement costs and ensures quality. Example: A soybean farmer in Madhya Pradesh checks e-Choupal for current market prices and weather updates before deciding the best time to harvest and sell his crop.
B. Godrej Adhaar Description:
Godrej Adhaar is a rural retail initiative that offers a one-stop shop for farmers, selling seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, animal feed, and even consumer goods. Stores also provide services like soil testing, veterinary advice, and farm equipment rentals. Benefits:
Increases rural access to quality products. Generates employment and entrepreneurial opportunities in rural areas. Example: A farmer visits a Godrej Adhaar store to buy certified seeds and receives free soil testing and crop advisory services.
C. HUL Shakti (Hindustan Unilever Limited)
Description:
Project Shakti empowers rural women by turning them into direct-to-home distributors of HUL products. HUL provides training and micro-credit support to women entrepreneurs, known as Shakti Ammas. Benefits:
Expands HUL’s rural reach cost-effectively. Promotes women’s empowerment and rural development. Example: A Shakti Amma sells soaps, shampoos, and detergents to 150 households in her village, earning extra income for her family.
D. Trade Management Description:
It involves the efficient management and organization of the supply chain, including logistics, inventory, distributor relationships, and retailer training. In rural areas, this means developing smaller SKUs (stock-keeping units), building last-mile connectivity, and educating retailers. Benefits:
Enhances product availability. Reduces stockouts and improves brand visibility. Example: FMCG companies appoint rural distributors and organize training programs for shopkeepers on product placement and customer service.
E. Rural Retailing Description:
Refers to organized retail formats specifically designed for rural consumers, such as rural malls, haats (weekly markets), and mobile vans. Retailers customize product assortments, pricing, and communication strategies. Benefits:
Brings urban retail experience to rural customers. Offers a wider range of products under one roof. Example: Hariyali Kisan Bazaar by DCM Shriram offers agricultural inputs, groceries, and household goods in a supermarket format in rural towns.
Case Study: ITC e-Choupal Background: ITC, a major Indian conglomerate, wanted to procure high-quality agricultural produce directly from farmers. The traditional mandi (market) system involved middlemen who often exploited both farmers and companies.
Solution: Launched in 2000, e-Choupal set up internet kiosks in villages, operated by local farmers. These kiosks provided:
Real-time market price updates Weather information Best agricultural practices Results: Over 4 million farmers across 40,000 villages benefited. Farmers’ incomes increased by 5–10% due to better price realization. ITC reduced procurement costs and built long-term farmer relationships. Exam Tip: Highlight how e-Choupal used technology to transform rural supply chains, improve transparency, and empower farmers.
Summary Table Channel Key Feature Benefit Example/Case Study ITC e-Choupal Digital farmer kiosks Direct market access, better prices A soybean farmer checks market prices Godrej Adhaar Rural retail stores Quality inputs and services, employment Farmer buys seeds & gets advice HUL Shakti Women micro-entrepreneurs, women empowerment, rural reach Shakti Amma distributes HUL products Trade Mgmt Efficient distribution Product availability, retailer support Rural retailer training Rural Retailing Rural malls, haats Urban retail experience, variety Hariyali Kisan Bazaar For exams:
Discuss the innovative approaches taken by companies to reach rural consumers. Use ITC e-Choupal as a detailed case study. Mention the social impact (empowerment, employment) in addition to business benefits.
A. Concepts and characteristics of the rural economy
Concept
Rural development is the process of making people’s lives better and their finances better, especially those who live in thinly populated or remote places. In the past, rural growth was based on misusing natural resources that needed a lot of land, like farming and forestry. But now, more and more people live in cities, and changes in global production networks have changed the way rural places work.
The progress of rural areas is still crucial to the growth of the whole country. More than two-thirds of the population in the country depend on farming for their livelihood, with one-third of rural India still living in poverty. Because of this, it is important for the government to work diligently and give them enough facilities to raise their level of living.
The actions that are taken to make rural areas better places to live and work to boost the economy are called rural development.
Characteristics of rural economy
The village is an institution: the village is the main institution in the rural community, and it meets almost all of their needs. People who live in rural areas feel like they belong and are united with each other.
Dependence on Agriculture: An important part of the country’s economy is nature and farming. In rural places, farming and related jobs are the main source of income.
Life in the Country: People who live in the country have basic lives. There are insufficient public services available, such as housing, schooling, health and sanitation, transportation and communication, banking, roads, and markets. Faith, traditions, and old ways of doing things are critical to people who live in rural areas. Most rural people have very low standards of life, which is sad. The rural sector lags significantly behind in terms of production methods, social organization, and political action. In the past few years, more people have been drinking booze.
Population Density: The number of people living in one square kilometer is very low, and houses are spread out all over the villages.
Employment Opportunities: In rural places, there is unemployment, seasonal unemployment, and underemployment. Individuals who are ready and able to work but cannot find work are said to be unemployed. Underemployment, which is also known as “disguised unemployment,” is when people are working more than they need to. When people work but production doesn’t go up, the condition is called “masquerading unemployment.” In rural places, both of these things constantly happen.
Poverty: People are poor when their basic needs aren’t met, like getting food, clothes, and a place to live. The figures for 2011–12 show that about 22 crores of people in rural areas are poor and live below the poverty line.
Debt: People in rural areas have a lot of debt because they are poor and don’t have enough jobs. This is because farm and non-farm jobs are scarce, the jobs pay little, and output is seasonal. In 1925, the famous British author Sir Malcolm Darling said, “An Indian farmer is born in debt, lives in debt, dies in debt, and leaves debt behind.” The villagers can’t get formal loans, so they have to rely on local moneylenders, who take advantage of them like parasites. As a result, many people in the village kill themselves.
Rural Income: People in rural areas earn little because the rural economy is too weak to provide jobs or self-employment opportunities. Many trained workers and laborers are underemployed, and there aren’t many ways for them to make more money.
Dependence: Most rural households rely on social grants and money sent back from family members who work in cities and towns.
Dualism: Two very different things existing together in the same place, such as developed and underdeveloped, organized and disorganized, traditional and modern, controlled and unregulated, poor and rich, skilled and unskilled, and other situations that seem to go against each other. People who live in country areas often have these traits.
Inequality: The distribution of income, wealth, and assets is uneven for individuals residing in rural areas. Numerous factors in history, society, and politics contribute to this imbalance. Landlords and owners control most of the operations in rural areas. A small group of people own land, animals, and other things.
Migration: People from rural areas have to leave their homes and move to cities in search of work to make a living. Cities are made possible by the way that growth works in this way. Bad relationships and a lack of basic amenities lead people to migrate from rural areas to cities. For Schumacher, this is like “double poisoning” because on one side, the farms are empty, and on the other, the towns are crowded. In his book “Small is Beautiful,” he discusses the problems with the way things are growing now.
B. Factors affecting rural economy
1. Rising level of knowledge
More reading and writing skills mean more job opportunities. According to the NSS, the literacy rate in rural areas in 2014 was 72.3% for men and 56.8% for women. This number is better than the rate in 2000, which was 68% for men and 43% for women.
Literacy rates are going up every year. Through SWAYAM and eVIDYA, the government has started to offer online classes. Through programs like Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) and Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA), the government has tried to get more people to go to school.
2. Work on infrastructure
For rural areas to grow, they need to have excellent infrastructure. Some of the most important signs of rural growth are roads, ways to communicate, electricity, clean water, irrigation systems, drainage lines, and decent places to live. In rural India, there have been more building projects and public service announcements in the past 20 years.
3. Adding new job opportunities
India’s rural areas have grown thanks to different policies, which have created new job possibilities. This kind of program is called TRYSEM (Training Rural Youth for Self-Employment). The main goal of this strategy was to teach young people technical skills.
The most recent example is the Atma Nirbhar Bharat Abhiyan, in which Hon. PM Modi asked companies to receive money to build prototypes. This will lead to more jobs over the next ten years.
4. The growth of mass media
People in rural areas are more aware now that there are more ways to communicate, like TV, social media, and radio. They can now seek employment, learn new skills, and talk to people outside the town thanks to cell phones and the internet.
Many people in rural places now know about government programs that can help them with farming and other activities. This is because of the growth of mass media.
5. Research in agriculture
The Indian Council of Agricultural Studies (ICAR) is in charge of agricultural studies in India. Research helps us figure out how food yield changes when the weather and soil are different, as well as how using certain fertilizers can boost production. Farmers have been helped by the use of new scientific tools. The green revolution came about because of this.
6. The effect of cities
Social media and other forms of communication have brought people from rural areas closer to people from cities. People in cities have an effect on people in the country. It changed how they lived and what they bought, which made more people want to buy consumer things.
Many industries and MNCs joined the rural market because of higher demand. MNCs worked to deliver their products to people at prices they could pay. More purchases contributed to the market’s growth. MNCs also started hiring locals, which raised the rate of employment.
7. Initiatives by the government
India’s government has done a lot to help rural areas grow and improve. Here are a few examples:
For self-sufficiency, Operation Flood and the White and Blue Revolution
The Integrated Rural Development Program (IRDP)
REP—Rural electrification program for providing an electricity supply
PSU and Banks lending money to farmers
Banks and the PSU Getting farmers loans
8. Contract farming
Contract farming is when businesses give farmers high-yield seeds and expect them to grow crops and send them back to the business. In this way, farmers don’t have to use their money to grow.
C. Basics needs of rural economy
Rural development is crucial for the comprehensive growth and advancement of the Indian economy for the following reasons.
A significant portion of the population resides in rural areas, and their growth and contributions play a crucial role in supporting the nation-building efforts. India cannot achieve development by keeping rural areas underdeveloped.
The rural economy aids the urban sectors by providing essential resources such as drinking water, milk, food, and raw materials. The underdevelopment of the rural sector will significantly hinder the overall economic advancement.
Enhancements in education, health, and sanitation in rural areas can prevent certain urban issues such as begging, scavenging, and the formation of roadside slums.
Agriculture and related activities are essential for creating employment opportunities in rural regions and enhancing total food output.
Developing rural areas can help decrease the negative effects of brain drain and rural-urban migration.
Developing the rural economy is necessary to make better use of underused and underutilized resources.
Rural development should reduce the disparity in infrastructure provision between rural and urban areas.
To enhance the country’s position in the global sphere regarding economic metrics such as the Human Development Index (HDI), Women Empowerment Index (WEI), Gender Disparity Index (GDI), Physical Quality of Life Index (PQLI), and Gross National Happiness Index (GNHI), these factors should be prioritized.
D. Rural-Urban disparities and Policy interventions.
Introduction
Rural development requirements differ from urban development demands and vary across different geographic locations and regions. Rural development in India largely focuses on the development of resources necessary for daily activities in a large and divided country. The main reason for a limited sectoral approach to rural development is the illogical placement of manufacturing facilities, inadequate infrastructure, and various other issues. The focus is on electrification, jobs, basic healthcare, and water management. Development work is carried out for a specific group or area within a cluster using a cluster management approach.
Urban development involves improving systems, traffic management, transportation, infrastructure, building management, and institutional management. The attitude, literacy, desire to adapt, and flexibility of target audiences vary in each scenario. Rural and urban development are interdependent for achieving comprehensive economic growth.
Should India change its focus?
Mahatma Gandhi’s statement, “India lives in its villages,” remains accurate in the present day. Rural communities have not benefited from development despite rising urbanization. These regions continue to experience challenges such as malnutrition, lack of education, joblessness, and inadequate infrastructure, including schools, universities, hospitals, and sanitary facilities.
The significant difference in living standards clearly indicates the contrasting aspects of India, which is a rapidly rising economy and one of the largest in the world. Rural Indian communities must develop concurrently with metropolitan regions, and the quality of life there must be enhanced for inclusive growth to take place.
The following are some disparities between rural and urban regions:
1. Disparities in Education
Urban areas undoubtedly boast superior infrastructure and educational systems compared to their rural counterparts. At both the elementary and secondary school levels, educational institutions in urban areas are extremely advanced, and the urban area education system is designed to provide students with a more enjoyable learning environment.
Conversely, in rural regions, students are deprived of even the most fundamental services and infrastructure; private schools and colleges are nonexistent, and teachers in government schools rarely attend classes. Only in such circumstances do students have the opportunity to receive an appropriate education.
2. Urban versus Rural Health Disparities
This section will cover healthcare disparities. Overall, urban health and medical systems are superior to their rural counterparts. The health sector in urban areas is more advanced and developed than that in rural areas.
In the rural healthcare sector, there is a dearth of appropriate medical equipment, inadequate infrastructure, and the majority of practitioners engage in fraudulent practices. This is the rationale behind the preference of individuals residing in rural regions to seek medical services in urban areas. The Indian government has been diligently operating in an effort to reduce the disparity between urban and rural health.
3. Employment Opportunity Disparities
In this regard, the contrast between urban and rural areas is likely the most pronounced. The rural populace relies heavily on agriculture for sustenance. Additionally, approximately sixty percent of the nation’s populace is involved in agricultural pursuits. Work restraint in the secondary and tertiary sectors or in the non-agricultural sector.
Certainly, those with an interest in pursuing careers in the tertiary or secondary sectors will find more favorable opportunities in urban settings. Over the past few years, rural areas have witnessed the emergence of several employment opportunities beyond farming. These include working in the marketplace, mining, teaching, small-scale industries, and more.
4. Architectural Disparities
In rural regions, the majority of inhabitants inhabit modest dwellings constructed from mud, thatched roofs, and huts; these structures are typically uncomplicated and impermanent, rendering them susceptible to damage from natural calamities such as heavy rainfall, floods, or tsunamis.
Conversely, an urban region predominantly comprises expansive apartments, while houses in this sector are built utilizing cement, cutting-edge technologies, and contemporary machinery, none of which are susceptible to damage.
5. Lifestyle Disparities
The rural populace generally leads a very uncomplicated way of life. Due to the prevalence of day-to-day employment in the agriculture or dairy industries, rural residents typically lack access to electricity in their dwellings and rely on ovens to prepare their meals. The lifestyle in urban areas is characterized by greater development and improvement.
Individuals in urban areas earn higher wages as a result of increased employment opportunities, which in turn raises the demand for shopping, food, and new digital technologies. Consequently, novel products and services are imported from other nations, and new categories of items have emerged in urban areas, all of which contribute to the enhancement of the lifestyle of urbanites.
E. Role of Agriculture in the Economic Development of India.
Agriculture’s significance in India’s economic development cannot be ignored, despite the crucial role performed by industries. This section will outline the seven crucial roles of agriculture in economic development.
1. Meets the growing food demands of the nation
Agriculture in India plays a crucial part in providing food. Agriculture meets the increasing food demands of the growing population. Food production is rapidly expanding, putting a heavy burden on surplus labor markets like India. If agriculture cannot continually increase its surplus of food grains, a catastrophe is likely to happen. Several developing countries are currently experiencing this phase, and agricultural practices will be enhanced to fulfill the increasing food requirements.
2. Distribution of raw materials to agricultural-based industries
Agriculture supplies raw materials to many agro-based industries like sugar, cotton textiles, jute, and vanaspati. Agriculture is crucial to the food processing business. The expansion of these industries is crucial for agriculture and farmers.
3. Improving Rural Quality of Life
Greater agricultural surpluses resulting from higher agricultural production have a positive impact on society welfare, particularly in rural areas.
4. Facilitates capital accumulation
There is a general agreement on the necessity of capital formation. Agriculture plays a crucial role in the economic growth of emerging countries like India by speeding capital formation due to its significance as the primary industry. If it does not comply, the entire economic growth process will face a setback.
5. Industrial Product Market
Rural purchasing power expansion is essential for industrial development, as villages are home to two-thirds of the Indian population. Big farmers had an increase in spending power due to their higher revenues and minimal tax obligations following the green revolution.
6. Contributes to the national Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
Agriculture has always played a vital part in contributing to India’s national GDP. In 1950-51, agriculture and related sectors contributed around 59% to the total national income. Although the share of agriculture has decreased steadily due to the growth of other industries, it remains comparatively high compared to industrialized nations worldwide.
7. Infrastructure Development
Agriculture’s involvement in economic development requires the establishment of infrastructure such as roads, postal services, marketplaces, warehouses, shipping facilities, and other components to facilitate the rise of industries and the commercial sector.
In India, it is especially important to make sure that data collection and study methods can be used by people who speak different languages, have different levels of literacy, and have varying levels of access to or familiarity with the internet.
Research on the rural market has existed for much longer and followed a defined structure even before urban markets fully developed. It’s funny, but this is true: most studies that have looked into health, learning, family planning, or building projects always start in the suburbs or the country.
However, research on marketing and its associated issues has only recently begun. This is because companies like HLL, Dabur, Colgate Palmolive, and Richardson Hindustan Ltd. (now P&G) started to do business in rural areas and found that they didn’t know much or anything about those markets. There was information about socioeconomic groups, like occupation profiles, school profiles, or ownership profiles. But there was no information about income, how it was spent, or what people liked to buy. Therefore, it became hard to divide the markets into different groups. Most businesses that wanted to get into rural areas either used published sources or paid for their studies.
A. Steps in rural marketing research
Understanding the applicable marketing strategy requires the development of a research plan.
The eight stages below assist in developing a plan for rural research:
1. Establish the Research Problem and Goals
The problem description phase specifies the subject matter to be examined. It is possible for the objectives of research to include the investigation of rural markets, distribution methods, or consumer behavior in rural areas. We will utilize different approaches to data collection for each of these aims. At this stage, the company must establish a clear understanding of the research and the intended outcomes.
2. Create a customized research plan for each district.
Given the diversity of rural consumers, it is crucial to customize a research strategy for each district. The organization is responsible for determining the essence of the research that will be carried out, coming up with the essential research questions and the recipients who are most suitable for them, and coming up with methods for data analysis.
This phase involves the formulation of hypotheses that can be tested, the specification of the processes for selecting a representative sample, and the establishment of the methodology for collecting the sample data. Qualitative research typically takes place in villages due to the limited number of participants.
3. Conduct a Secondary Data Search
Secondary data comprises publicly available information from government agencies, including but not limited to census, transportation, school, and public health data. Although secondary data on rural areas is limited in scope, researchers have the option to access industry associations, consultancies, and rural journals, as well as trade associations such as the Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce & Industry (FICCI) and the Confederation of Indian Industry (CII).
Professional research firms such as Nielsen, Accenture, McKinsey, Ernst and Young, and the Indian Market Research Bureau (IMRB) publish reports and conduct research on rural markets. However, it is important to note that these secondary data sources, along with others, provide a macro perspective of villages.
4. Construct a main research investigation
Primary research is frequently required when secondary data from rural areas is inadequate. It is determined whether primary data will be gathered through a survey, interview, observation, or online source. In addition to formulating and translating questionnaires into local languages, the methodology for conducting a primary study is also delineated.
5. Sample Selection
When selecting samples, it is essential to maintain objectivity and ensure that they are adequately representative of the overall population. Because of this, cluster or stratified sampling is necessary in order to include all of the socioeconomic groups that are present in a community.
This method is frequently not possible in rural locations, although metropolitan areas have a tendency to favor conducting random sampling. When doing sampling in rural areas, it is vital to use convenience sampling. Only the researcher can ensure comprehensive coverage of all socioeconomic, caste, and religious categories to the maximum extent possible.
6. Gather Primary Source Data
Field workers face a significant obstacle in primary data collection: not only must they travel great distances, but rural residents are also wary of urban individuals carrying questionnaires. It is nearly impossible to conduct one-on-one interviews because villagers typically congregate around the researcher. For researchers to converse with women, females are required. People are also unfamiliar with brands, which further complicates comparisons.
Respondents frequently provide responses that align with perceived expectations rather than reflecting their true emotions, posing an additional challenge for the researcher. To conduct interviews, participants are questioned in small groups. However, the researcher must be able to conduct interviews with villagers in their native tongues while simultaneously providing explanations and gathering information. Occasionally, casual observation of markets and consumers can yield valuable insights into rural existence without the need for formal inquiries.
7. Data Analysis
Statistical tests are utilized to assess the validity and reliability of data. Nevertheless, statistical techniques such as factor analysis, correlation, regression, and discriminant analysis are only applicable when the data set is substantial in size. However, such an outcome is improbable to occur in rural areas. Cluster analysis, which identifies elements’ commonalities, could be one method utilized in rural market research. It would be a significant undertaking to eliminate researcher bias in qualitative research.
8. Apply the findings to guide marketing decisions.
In the last stage, meaning is derived from the analysis of the data, and recommendations for the marketing plan are formulated in a realistic manner.
B. Sampling Methods
You need sampling because you can’t talk to or question every customer or non-customer. Sampling aims to find what works for a small group so it can be used for the whole community. Sampling means picking a small group of people from the whole community to talk to. There are two main requirements for the sample: it must be fair and true to the whole community.
In an ideal scenario, each member of the population should have an equal chance of selection from the group. At the same time, this is not possible in rural places. Generally, we exclude certain groups of people, such as women and members of specific castes. So, methods that aren’t based on chance are used, and easier sampling is often used. In towns, it is important for probability methods to use stratified sampling so that the person answering the survey picks people from each group. If groups are easy to spot, cluster sampling could also be used.
Here’s how to understand these:
1. Stratified sampling
Stratification is the process of dividing people in a town into smaller groups that are similar to each other. Then, within each subgroup, either simple random selection or systematic sampling is used. One way for a researcher to find out how people in the whole community behave as consumers is to pick a sample from each of the three social classes: the upper, the middle, and the lower.
2. Cluster sampling
The whole population is split into groups, and then random samples are chosen from each group. For instance, we could divide the people in a town into groups based on their jobs and then pick people at random from each group.
When experts choose samples based on their own opinions, the process is called non-probability sampling. It’s often done because of real concerns, like not having enough time or resources to carry out full-fledged surveys. Researchers must use easily accessible groups to survey villages.
In non-probability sampling, there are three popular ways to do things:
a. Convenience sampling
Convenience sampling is a type of non-probability sampling in which people are chosen as subjects because they are easy to reach. In villages, it means talking to people who are there at a certain time. Even though it’s quick, the method might not work well.
b. Quota sampling
In quota sampling, the population is split into subgroups that can’t be joined together. Then, things are chosen from each subgroup based on a certain percentage. A company may set a goal to interview 30 people in each village.
c. Judgemental sampling
Judgment sampling is when a researcher picks things from a community based on his or her opinion. For example, a researcher might choose to talk to the sarpanch or other important people in a village or ask them for recommendations to get good answers. This type of study is known as judgmental sampling.
C. Rural Market Research
It’s not easy or a set of steps to do rural market research because customers live far away and don’t always see brands and goods. There is a lack of secondary data on how people in villages buy things.
Because of this, traditional ways of doing market research don’t work well in rural places. Many companies have wasted a lot of time and money trying to build supply chains to rural areas because they don’t have correct information about what people in villages buy. Most businesses only need to look at the population data—about 850 million people who aren’t getting enough service—to see what a significant chance it is. But marketing in rural areas will fail if people don’t know the people who live there and what they buy.
Researching what customers want helps with every part of marketing strategy. You need it to answer questions and help with your marketing plan.
It helps businesses do the following:
1. Identify potential customers and segments
A big part of rural market research is finding buyers in rural areas and wealthy groups within the rural population. To achieve this, you need to collect detailed info.
2. Getting People to Use Products
Why do people buy certain things? That’s an important question to answer. For instance, people may purchase a washing machine in cities to wash clothes, but in rural areas, they may use it to make milk. These kinds of insights can help businesses change their goods.
3. Know your current customers.
People who buy things from companies need to know what those people value and why they buy. They can find out who makes people buy things and what role models are popular in rural areas. Also, businesses find out which items people buy because they work and which ones they buy because they look appealing.
4. Figuring out buying habits
Some of the most important factors are where people like to buy things, how much they buy, and when they buy it. As a result, special channels of distribution are set up to serve rural areas. A village store sells some things, but a close town has other things that can be bought.
5. Make a plan for marketing
Market research helps with decisions like how to create, price, package, distribute, and communicate about a product. Research also tells businesses about their rivals, which helps them come up with counteroffers.
D. Key challenges in Research data collection.
India has many different cultures and landscapes, which makes it hard for marketers and researchers to make surveys for rural India. Here are some of the most significant problems they face:
1. Reach: The 2011 Census found that about 58% of India’s rural population lives in 115,080 villages with 2,000 or more people. In practice, this means that about 80% of all towns in India are small or minimal, with less than 2000 people living there. FMCG companies face a big problem when they try to reach end customers in rural areas, which is called the “last mile.” Also, companies have a challenging time getting their products to the 33 million stores in rural India because it costs a lot to deliver them. To reach into rural areas, it’s important to have a focused and targeted reach. This important factor needs to be taken into account when planning the survey’s scope of study and sampling method.
2. The business can make money: In India, 85,000 large villages are home to about 40% of the people and 60% of all processed food and beverages. For business reasons, it’s not possible to cover all of rural India because the population and buying power aren’t evenly distributed.
3. High level of heterogeneity: “One size fits all” doesn’t work well when making a survey or plan for India’s rural areas. For instance, more than 75–80% of the people who live in poor and backward states like Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, and Madhya Pradesh live in rural areas. On the other hand, the spread of people living in urbanized states like Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, and Telangana is more fair. Because of this, every state has its own unique demographic and sociocultural profile, which should be taken into account when planning the sampling method for any primary research study.
4. Gender Equality: In rural India, women are important buyers and makers of many product categories, but men are more likely to be the main buyers. “Whom to interview” is therefore one of the most important questions to answer when making a poll.
5. Many different languages: India has 22 legal languages and a lot of different local languages, dialects, and everyday words. Therefore, being able to communicate well in more than one language is necessary for running surveys in rural India.
E. Methodologies for rural research
Developing a method that accurately captures the diversity of rural India requires consideration of the following factors:
1. Regional representation
In India, which is very big and has many different kinds of people, it is important to reflect heterogeneity and make sure that the study is representative. For example, Northerners and Southerners have very different views and behaviors. In the same way, people from other places have different social and cultural backgrounds that often affect how they think and feel, especially about touchy topics.
So, choosing Socio-Cultural Regions, or SCRs, is often the first step in figuring out how people in rural areas buy things. The regions help us understand people and their actions by putting them in the context of common farming practices, social and cultural differences, and income and spending habits that depend on the crop season.
2. Adequacy of sample
India’s different states have very different amounts of people living in them. For instance, Uttar Pradesh, India’s most populous state, is home to almost 15% of the country’s people. On the other hand, less than 0.5% of India’s people live in the tiny state of Goa. So, in a pan-Indian or multi-state survey, it is important to divide the group by state. Most of the time, states are divided into groups based on their population, such as high-population states, middle-population states, and low-population states. The sample is then set for each band based on the size of that band’s population to make sure it is a good representation of the whole.
The sample size would also rely on things like how detailed the data needed within a state is and how different the population characteristics are within a state (et al.).
3. Defining rural
According to the Indian Census, a rural village is a place that meets all three of the following criteria:
There are less than 5,000 people living there.
75% of the men work in non-agricultural jobs.
There are also less than 400 people living in every square kilometer.
However, this huge and very large area covering is hard for any marketing company to cover for business reasons. Because of this, different meanings of “rural” are used to make things more practical. Many businesses use the “hub and spoke model” to show how their distribution routes connect with rural areas. They look at areas that are close to or within a certain distance of the feeder towns.
Most businesses in rural India have trouble with the last mile of connection. It’s not seen as a good idea to cover the center or remote parts of rural areas. The “immediate” possibility for targeting rural India is in the villages on the edges of small towns or feeder towns that are easy to get to. The “Ringing Method” is another name for this way of choosing your village.
The things listed above have big effects on how researchers come up with a good method and, even more importantly, how they choose a good sampling method for their study.
4. Other Imperatives
When planning methods for rural study, there are a few other things that you need to keep in mind:
Permissions: Before doing any fieldwork in a village, it is important to talk to the village leader, who is called the “Sarpanch,” about the study and its goals and get permission to do fieldwork. This is official proof from the head of the village that they know about the study and give their official permission.
Village Map: Before you start fieldwork, you have to make a rough map of the village to get a sense of its plan and the most important buildings, such as the hospital, school, panchayat office, temple, or any other place of worship. The team leader usually does this activity with the help of an older person from the town, like the sarpanch, schoolteacher, or someone else. Rural homes and households in a village are not organized or follow a plan like homes in cities. Maps also help choose and sample clusters of homes and households in that village.
Using slang: Because Indian states have a lot of different languages, certain sentences or words have different slang meanings. So, to make it easier for people to understand the questions, it is usually suggested that the local language be added to the instrument based on comments from a knowledgeable person in the area, like a schoolteacher.
Multinational companies and marketers are now focusing on people in rural areas. This means that spending on rural market research in India is expected to rise soon. It looks like this is a good chance for market research firms to improve the way they do research with country customers in mind. At the same time, researchers should keep in mind some of the problems that come with doing research in rural areas, such as a community that isn’t very tech-savvy, doesn’t read or write well, or isn’t well connected, when planning how to do research with this group.
